PART 5 Offence under Domestic Law

England and Wales

51 Genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes
(1) It is an offence against the law of England and Wales for a person to commit genocide, a crime against humanity or a war crime.
(2) This section applies to acts committed—
(a) in England or Wales, or
(b) outside the United Kingdom by a United Kingdom national, a United Kingdom resident or a person subject to UK service jurisdiction.

52 Conduct ancillary to genocide, etc. committed outside jurisdiction
(1) It is an offence against the law of England and Wales for a person to engage in conduct ancillary to an act to which this section applies.
(2) This section applies to an act that if committed in England or Wales would constitute—
(a) an offence under section 51 (genocide, crime against humanity or war crime), or
(b) an offence under this section,
but which, being committed (or intended to be committed) outside England and Wales, does not constitute such an offence.
(3) The reference in subsection (1) to conduct ancillary to such an act is to conduct that would constitute an ancillary offence in relation to that act if the act were committed in England or Wales.
(4) This section applies where the conduct in question consists of or includes an act committed—
(a) in England or Wales, or
(b) outside the United Kingdom by a United Kingdom national, a United Kingdom resident or a person subject to UK service jurisdiction.

53 Trial and punishment of main offences
(1) The following provisions apply in relation to—
(a) offences under section 51 (genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes),
(b) offences under section 52 (conduct ancillary to genocide, etc. committed outside jurisdiction), and
(c) offences ancillary to an offence within paragraph (a) or (b) above.
(2) The offence is triable only on indictment.
(3) Proceedings for an offence shall not be instituted except by or with the consent of the Attorney General.
(4) If the offence is not committed in England or Wales—
(a) proceedings may be taken, and
(b) the offence may for incidental purposes be treated as having been committed,
in any place in England or Wales.
(5) A person convicted of—
(a) an offence involving murder, or
(b) an offence ancillary to an offence involving murder,
shall be dealt with as for an offence of murder or, as the case may be, the corresponding ancillary offence in relation to murder.
In this subsection “murder” means the killing of a person in such circumstances as would, if committed in England or Wales, constitute murder.
(6) In any other case a person convicted of an offence is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 30 years.

PART 5 Offences under Domestic Law

England and Wales

55 Meaning of “ancillary offence”

(1) References in this Part to an ancillary offence under the law of England and Wales are to—
(a) aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring the commission of an offence,
(b) inciting a person to commit an offence,
(c) attempting or conspiring to commit an offence, or
(d) assisting an offender or concealing the commission of an offence.

(2) In subsection (1)(a) the reference to aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring is to conduct that in relation to an indictable offence would be punishable under section 8 of the Accessories and Abettors Act 1861 (c. 94).

(3) In subsection (1)(b) the reference to incitement is to conduct amounting to an offence of incitement at common law.

(4) In subsection (1)(c)—
(a) the reference to an attempt is to conduct amounting to an offence under section 1 of the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 (c. 47); and
(b) the reference to conspiracy is to conduct amounting to an offence of conspiracy under section 1 of the Criminal Law Act 1977 (c. 45).

(5) In subsection (1)(d)—
(a)the reference to assisting an offender is to conduct that in relation to a relevant offence would amount to an offence under section 4(1) of the Criminal Law Act 1967 (c. 58); and
(b)the reference to concealing an offence is to conduct that in relation to a relevant offence would amount to an offence under section 5(1) of that Act.

56 Saving for general principles of liability, etc
(1) In determining whether an offence under this Part has been committed the court shall apply the principles of the law of England and Wales.

(2) Nothing in this Part shall be read as restricting the operation of any enactment or rule of law relating to—
(a) the extra-territorial application of offences (including offences under this Part), or
(b) offences ancillary to offences under this Part (wherever committed).

PART 5 Offences under Domestic Law

Northern Ireland

58 Genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes

(1) It is an offence against the law of Northern Ireland for a person to commit genocide, a crime against humanity or a war crime.

(2) This section applies to acts committed—
(a) in Northern Ireland, or
(b) outside the United Kingdom by a United Kingdom national or a United Kingdom resident.


59 Conduct ancillary to genocide, etc. committed outside jurisdiction

(1) It is an offence against the law of Northern Ireland for a person to engage in conduct ancillary to an act to which this section applies.

(2) This section applies to an act that if committed in Northern Ireland would constitute—
(a) an offence under section 58 (genocide, crime against humanity or war crime), or
(b) an offence under this section,
but which, being committed (or intended to be committed) outside Northern Ireland, does not constitute such an offence.

(3) The reference in subsection (1) to conduct ancillary to such an act is to conduct that would constitute an ancillary offence in relation to that act if the act were committed in Northern Ireland.

(4) This section applies where the conduct in question consists of or includes an act committed—
(a) in Northern Ireland, or
(b) outside the United Kingdom by a United Kingdom national or a United Kingdom resident.


60 Trial and punishment of main offences

(1) The following provisions apply in relation to—
(a) offences under section 58 (genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes),
(b) offences under section 59 (conduct ancillary to genocide, etc. committed outside jurisdiction), and
(c) offences ancillary to an offence within paragraph (a) or (b) above.

(2) The offence is triable only on indictment.

(3) Proceedings for an offence shall not be instituted except by or with the consent of the Attorney General for Northern Ireland.

(4) If the offence is not committed in Northern Ireland—
(a) proceedings may be taken, and
(b) the offence may for incidental purposes be treated as having been committed,
in any place in Northern Ireland.

(5) A person convicted of—
(a) an offence involving murder, or
(b) an offence ancillary to an offence involving murder,
shall be dealt with as for an offence of murder or, as the case may be, the corresponding ancillary offence in relation to murder.
In this subsection “murder” means the killing of a person in such circumstances as would, if committed in Northern Ireland, constitute murder.

(6) In any other case a person convicted of an offence is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 30 years.

PART 5 Offences under Domestic Law

Supplementary provisions

66 Mental element

(1) References in this Part to a person committing—
(a) genocide,
(b) a crime against humanity,
(c) a war crime, or
(d) any of the acts mentioned in article 70.1 (offences against the admninistration of justice in relation to the ICC),
shall be construed in accordance with this section.

(2) Unless otherwise provided by—
(a) the articles mentioned in the definition in section 50(1) of the crimes specified in subsection (1)(a) to (c) above, or any relevant Elements of Crimes (see section 50(2)),
(b) section 54(1) or 61(1) or article 70.1 (offences in relation to the ICC), or
(c) section 65 (responsibility of commanders and other superiors),
a person is regarded as committing such an act or crime only if the material elements are committed with intent and knowledge.

(3) For this purpose—
(a) a person has intent—
(i) in relation to conduct, where he means to engage in the conduct, and
(ii) in relation to a consequence, where he means to cause the consequence or is aware that it will occur in the ordinary course of events; and
(b) “knowledge” means awareness that a circumstance exists or a consequence will occur in the ordinary course of events.

(4) In interpreting and applying the provisions of this section (which corresponds to article 30) the court shall take into account any relevant judgment or decision of the ICC.
Account may also be taken of any other relevant international jurisprudence.

PART 5 OFFENCES UNDER DOMESTIC LAW

Introduction

50 Meaning of “genocide”, “crime against humanity” and “war crime”

(1) In this Part—

• “war crime” means a war crime as defined in article 8.2.

Part 5 Offences under domestic law

Consequential provisions

70 Offences under section 1 of the Geneva Conventions Act 1957

(1) In section 1 of the Geneva Conventions Act 1957 (c. 52) (punishment of grave breaches of the conventions)—
(a) in subsection (1), omit the words from “and on conviction on indictment” to the end; and
(b) omit subsections (3) to (5).
(2) After that section insert—
“1A Trial and punishment of offences under s.1
(1) The following provisions apply in relation to offences under section 1 of this Act.
(2) The offence is triable only on indictment.
(3) Proceedings for an offence shall not be instituted—
(a) in England and Wales, except by or with the consent of the Attorney General;
(b) in Northern Ireland, except by or with the consent of the Attorney General for Northern Ireland.
(4) If the offence is not committed in the United Kingdom—
(a) proceedings may be taken, and
(b) the offence may for incidental purposes be treated as having been committed,
in any place in the United Kingdom.
(5) A person convicted of an offence involving murder shall be dealt with as for an offence of murder.
In this subsection “murder” means the killing of a person in such circumstances as would constitute murder if committed in the part of the United Kingdon in which the proceedings are brought.
(6) In any other case a person convicted of an offence is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 30 years.”.
(3) The above amendments do not apply in relation to offences committed before the commencement of this section.

Part 5 Offences under domestic law

Consequential provisions

71 Extradition: Orders in Council under the 1870 Act

Repealed.

72 Extradition: exception to dual criminality rule under the 1989 Act

Repealed.

73 Extradition: offences not regarded as of political character etc

Repealed.

SCHEDULES

SCHEDULE 8 Genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes: articles 6 to 9

ARTICLE 8 WAR CRIMES

2 For the purpose of this Statute, “war crimes” means:

(a) Grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, namely, any of the following acts against persons or property protected under the provisions of the relevant Geneva Convention:
(i) Wilful killing;
(ii) Torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments;
(iii) Wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or health;
(iv) Extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly;
(v) Compelling a prisoner of war or other protected person to serve in the forces of a hostile Power;
(vi) Wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or other protected person of the rights of fair and regular trial;
(vii) Unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement;
(viii) Taking of hostages.

(b) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in international armed conflict, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts:
(i) Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities;
(ii) Intentionally directing attacks against civilian objects, that is, objects which are not military objectives;
(iii) Intentionally directing attacks against personnel, installations, material, units or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians or civilian objects under the international law of armed conflict;
(iv) Intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated;
(v) Attacking or bombarding, by whatever means, towns, villages, dwellings or buildings which are undefended and which are not military objectives;
(vi) Killing or wounding a combatant who, having laid down his arms or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at discretion;
(vii) Making improper use of a flag of truce, or of the flag or of the military insignia and uniform of the enemy or of the United Nations, as well as of the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions, resulting in death or serious personal injury;
(viii) The transfer, directly or indirectly, by the Occupying Power of parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, or the deportation or transfer of all or parts of the population of the occupied territory within or outside this territory;
(ix) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives;
(x) Subjecting persons who are in the power of an adverse party to physical mutilation or to medical or scientific experiments of any kind which are neither justified by the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the person concerned nor carried out in his or her interest, and which cause death to or seriously endanger the health of such person or persons;
(xi) Killing or wounding treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation or army;
(xii) Declaring that no quarter will be given;
(xiii) Destroying or seizing the enemy’s property unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war;
(xiv) Declaring abolished, suspended or inadmissible in a court of law the rights and actions of the nationals of the hostile party;
(xv) Compelling the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country, even if they were in the belligerent’s service before the commencement of the war;
(xvi) Pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault;
(xvii) Employing poison or poisoned weapons;
(xviii) Employing asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and all analogous liquids, materials or devices;
(xix) Employing bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover the core or is pierced with incisions;
.......
(xxi) Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(xxii) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy as defined in article 7, paragraph 2(f), enforced sterilisation, or any other form of sexual violence also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions;
(xxiii) Utilizing the presence of a civilian or other protected person to render certain points, areas or military forces immune from military operations;
(xxiv) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings, material, medical units and transport, and personnel using the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions in conformity with international law;
(xxv) Intentionally using starvation of civilians as a method of warfare by depriving them of objects indispensable to their survival, including wilfully impeding relief supplies as provided for under the Geneva Conventions;
(xxvi) Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into the national armed forces or using them to participate actively in hostilities.

(c) In the case of an armed conflict not of an international character, serious violations of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, namely, any of the following acts committed against persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention or any other cause:
(i) Violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture;
(ii) Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(iii) Taking of hostages;
(iv) The passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgement pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all judicial guarantees which are generally recognised as indispensable.

(d) Paragraph 2(c) applies to armed conflicts not of an international character and thus does not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature.

(e) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts not of an international character, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts:
(i) Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities;
(ii) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings, material, medical units and transport, and personnel using the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions in conformity with international law;
(iii) Intentionally directing attacks against personnel, installations, material, units or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians or civilian objects under the international law of armed conflict;
(iv) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives;
(v) Pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault;
(vi) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2(f), enforced sterilization, and any other form of sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions;
(vii) Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities;
(viii) Ordering the displacement of the civilian population for reasons related to the conflict, unless the security of the civilians involved or imperative military reasons so demand;
(ix) Killing or wounding treacherously a combatant adversary;
(x) Declaring that no quarter will be given;
(xi) Subjecting persons who are in the power of another party to the conflict to physical mutilation or to medical or scientific experiments of any kind which are neither justified by the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the person concerned nor carried out in his or her interest, and which cause death to or seriously endanger the health of such person or persons;
(xii) Destroying or seizing the property of an adversary unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of the conflict.

(f) Paragraph 2(e) applies to armed conflicts not of an international character and thus does not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature. It applies to armed conflicts that take place in the territory of a State when there is protracted armed conflict between governmental authorities and organized armed groups or between such groups.

Article 5
Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court
1. The jurisdiction of the Court shall be limited to the most serious crimes of concern to the
international community as a whole. The Court has jurisdiction in accordance with this Statute
with respect to the following crimes:
(c) War crimes

Article 8
War crimes
1. The Court shall have jurisdiction in respect of war crimes in particular when committed as part of a plan or policy or as part of a large-scale commission of such crimes.
2. For the purpose of this Statute, "war crimes" means:
(a) Grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, namely, any of the following acts against persons or property protected under the provisions of the relevant Geneva Convention:
(i) Wilful killing;
(ii) Torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments;
(iii) Wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or health;
(iv) Extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly;
(v) Compelling a prisoner of war or other protected person to serve in the forces of a hostile Power;
(vi) Wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or other protected person of the rights of fair and regular trial;
(vii) Unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement;
(viii) Taking of hostages.
(b) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in international armed conflict, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts:
(i) Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities;
(ii) Intentionally directing attacks against civilian objects, that is, objects which are not military objectives;
(iii) Intentionally directing attacks against personnel, installations, material, units or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians or civilian objects under the international law of armed conflict;
(iv) Intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated;
(v) Attacking or bombarding, by whatever means, towns, villages, dwellings or buildings which are undefended and which are not military objectives;
(vi) Killing or wounding a combatant who, having laid down his arms or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at discretion;
(vii) Making improper use of a flag of truce, of the flag or of the military insignia and uniform of the enemy or of the United Nations, as well as of the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions, resulting in death or serious personal injury;
(viii) The transfer, directly or indirectly, by the Occupying Power of parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies, or the deportation or transfer of all or parts of the population of the occupied territory within or outside this territory;
(ix) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives;
(x) Subjecting persons who are in the power of an adverse party to physical mutilation or to medical or scientific experiments of any kind which are neither justified by the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the person concerned nor carried out in his or her interest, and which cause death to or seriously endanger the health of such person or persons;
(xi) Killing or wounding treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation or army;
(xii) Declaring that no quarter will be given;
(xiii) Destroying or seizing the enemy's property unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war;
(xiv) Declaring abolished, suspended or inadmissible in a court of law the rights and actions of the nationals of the hostile party;
(xv) Compelling the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country, even if they were in the belligerent's service before the commencement of the war;
(xvi) Pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault;
(xvii) Employing poison or poisoned weapons;
(xviii) Employing asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and all analogous liquids, materials or devices;
(xix) Employing bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover the core or is pierced with incisions;
(xx) Employing weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare which are of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering or which are inherently indiscriminate in violation of the international law of armed conflict, provided that such weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare are the subject of a comprehensive prohibition and are included in an annex to this Statute, by an amendment in accordance with the relevant provisions set forth in articles 121 and 123;
(xxi) Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(xxii) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions;
(xxiii) Utilizing the presence of a civilian or other protected person to render certain points, areas or military forces immune from military operations;
(xxiv) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings, material, medical units and transport, and personnel using the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions in conformity with international law;
(xxv) Intentionally using starvation of civilians as a method of warfare by depriving them of objects indispensable to their survival, including wilfully impeding relief supplies as provided for under the Geneva Conventions;
(xxvi) Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into the national armed forces or using them to participate actively in hostilities.
(c) In the case of an armed conflict not of an international character, serious violations of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, namely, any of the following acts committed against persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention or any other cause:
(i) Violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture;
(ii) Committing outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(iii) Taking of hostages;
(iv) The passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgement pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all judicial guarantees which are generally recognized as indispensable.
(d) Paragraph 2 (c) applies to armed conflicts not of an international character and thus does not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature.
(e) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts not of an international character, within the established framework of international law, namely, any of the following acts:
(i) Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities;
(ii) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings, material, medical units and transport, and personnel using the distinctive emblems of the Geneva Conventions in conformity with international law;
(iii) Intentionally directing attacks against personnel, installations, material, units or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians or civilian objects under the international law of armed conflict;
(iv) Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives;
(v) Pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault;
(vi) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, and any other form of sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions;
(vii) Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities;
(viii) Ordering the displacement of the civilian population for reasons related to the conflict, unless the security of the civilians involved or imperative military reasons so demand;
(ix) Killing or wounding treacherously a combatant adversary;
(x) Declaring that no quarter will be given;
(xi) Subjecting persons who are in the power of another party to the conflict to physical mutilation or to medical or scientific experiments of any kind which are neither justified by the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the person concerned nor carried out in his or her interest, and which cause death to or seriously endanger the health of such person or persons;
(xii) Destroying or seizing the property of an adversary unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of the conflict;
(f) Paragraph 2 (e) applies to armed conflicts not of an international character and thus does not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature. It applies to armed conflicts that take place in the territory of a State when there is protracted armed conflict between governmental authorities and organized armed groups or between such groups.
3. Nothing in paragraph 2 (c) and (e) shall affect the responsibility of a Government to maintain or re-establish law and order in the State or to defend the unity and territorial integrity of the State, by all legitimate means.

This provision follows the ICC Statute.

 

Sections 50 and 51 of the ICC Act 2001 incorporate War Crimes into national law by reference to the Rome Statute, making war crimes as defined in the Rome Statute a criminal offence in England and Wales (See Matthew Brubacher and Simon Olleson, Report of the United Kingdom (European Law Students Association, London 2004) 2 and Robert Cryer and Olympia Bekou, 'International Crimes and ICC Cooperation in England and Wales' (2007) 5 Journal of International Criminal Justice 441, 444). Further, the Act provides that the crime should be interpreted in accordance with the Elements of Crime propagated under Article 9 of the Rome Statute, along with decisions of the ICC and other international tribunals. It is important that prosecutors utilising this section make clear which war crimes they intend to charge in the indictment, both to ensure a defendant cannot argue that a charge of 'crime against Hhmanity' simpliciter is duplicitous, as it may cover a number of modes of commission, and to ensure fairness and that defendants are aware of the crime that they are accused of. Section 58(1) makes war crimes as defined in Article 8 of the Rome Statute, a crime under Northern Irish criminal law. The crime mirrors the Rome Statute. In Scotland the ICC (Scotland) Act 2001 similarly incorporates the offences set out in Article 8 of the Rome Statute, and therefore the offence tracks that contained in the Statute. General principles of liability apply to determining whether the accused is guilty of these crimes. The general presumption is that all crimes must be committed with knowledge and intent, unless the contrary can be shown. Grave breaches continue to be triable under the Geneva Conventions Act 1957 (as amended)